Apparatus for investigating earth formations



INVENTOR` 5 Sheets-Sheet l FRANK FJOHNSON JAY TITTMAN THEIR ATTORNEY July 5, 1960 F. F. JOHNSON ETAL APPARATUS RoR TNVESTTGATING EARTH FORMATIONS Filed July 2, 1954 July 5, 1960 F. F. JOHNSON ErAL 2,944,148

APPARATUS FOR TNVESTIGATTNG EARTH FORMATIONS 5 Sheets-Sheet 2 Filed July 2, 1954 INVENTOR` FRAN K F. JOHNSON JAY TITTMAN amm www THEIR ATTORNEY APPARATUS ROR INVESTTGATINO EARTH FORMATIONS Filed July 2, 1954 July 5, 1960 F. F. JOHNSON ETAL 5 Sheets-Sheet 3 Mar ble Quartz POROSITY FIG. 5

Dry Sand (46% Porosity) |.I L3 L? ELEC TRON DENSlTY(Arb. UnHS) n. m, n o. w w n O 2 2 2 2 l. I. l I

ENERGYWEV) AmmcD .Abi mbqm 022.2300 40 30 IO l5 2O 25 30 35 4O IOO POROSITY FIG. 6

FIG.7

INVENTORS FRANK F. JOHNSON JAY TITTMAN THEIR VATTORNEY CPS/MC July 5, 19150 F. F. JOHNSON ET AL 2,944,148 l' APPARATUS FOR INVESTIGATING EARTH FORMATIONS Filed July 2, 1954 5 Sheets-Sheet 4 sand+wanr |,ooo 2.' g/cm3 BOO o E (l) soo g i l 25.30 35 40O..`....||i

S-D SPGC'nQiCM) o i 2 s 4 5 s 7 e 9 lo il l2 F 8 Thickness ofLimesioneiinches) l FIG IO Sand+waier (24cm spacing) Marble(24cm spacing) Sand+waier(32cm spacing) Sand+Waeri40cm spacing) |01s Marble (32cm spacing) i; Marble (40cm spacing) :r:J 2.8 e' q A v O E 2.6 g o ios 2 4 y. *l 2 2.2 g

ZOO 400 SOO CPs/Mc 'O2 .l .2 .4 .6 ENERGY(MEV) o 5'0 lo lo 2'00 FIGIS INVENTORS FRANK FJOHNSON JAY TITTMAN www THEIR ATTORNEY July 5, 1960 F. F. JOHNSON ETAL 2,944,148

'APPARATUS FOR INVESTIGATING EARTH FORMATIONS Filed July 2, 1954 5 Sheets-Sheet 5 FIGJZ Low DENSITY ENERGY (MEV) FIG. I3

LOW DENSITY DENSITY ENERGYIMEV) FIG."

INVENTORS FRAN K F. JOHNSON JAY TIT TMAN MMI/MM THEIR ATTORNEY nited APPARATUS FOR INVESTIGATING EARTH FORMATIONS Frank F. Johnson and .lay Tittmau, Danbury, Conn., assignors, by mesne assignments, to Schlumberger Well Surveying Corporation, Houston, Tex., a corporation of Texas Filed July 2, 1954, Ser. No. 441,064

12 Claims. (Cl. Z50-'71) This invention relates to apparatus for investigating they earth formations traversed by a well or borehole and, more particularly, pertains to new and improved apparatus of the type including a source for im'dating the formations with gamma radiation and a detector for obtaining indications of gamma radiation affected by the formations.

Recent investigations have revealed that information concerning the density of earth formations is of great utility. For example, where the grain density and nter- `stitial fluid density of a formation are known, a density `log may be converted directly to a totalY porosity log. The latter characteristic, of course, is useful in estimating the reservoir capacity of hydrocarbon-containing formations.

Moreover, density is of interest as a lfactor influencing seismic veloci-ty. This is understandable since a better knowledge of subsurface densities may permit improved interpretation of seismic surveys.

In addition, density information aids the interpretation of gravity surveys inasmuch as the depths of formations exhibiting gravitational anomalies are usually dii cult to determine with present techniques.

Apparatus has been proposed for obtaining a log of formation density utilizing a source of gamma radiation and a gamma ray detector. However, the precision of these measurements is too low to be of any great utility in the applications enumerated hereinbefore.

It is, therefore, an object of the present invention to provide new and improved logging apparatus utilizing gamma radiation for determining formation density with greater precision than heretofore possible.

Apparatus in accordance with the present invention for investigating earth formations traversed by a well or borehole comprises an instrument adapted to be passed through a borehole. The instrument includes a wallengaging face and means are provided for maintaining the wall-engaging face in engagement with the sidewall of the borehole. A source of gamma radiation is supported within the instrument in the vicinity of the wallengaging face. The apparatus further comprises a detection system including a gamma-ray-responsive device supported within the instrument in the vicitiny of the wallengaging face, and longitudinally spaced from the source relative to the axis of the borehole. The detection systern additionally includes an element coupled to the gamma-ray-responsive device and contained by an extension of the instrument that is tilted relative to a longitudinal Vline of the wall-engaging face in a direction toward the axis of the borehole.

The novel features of the present invention are set forth with particular-ity in the appended claims. The present invention, both as to its organization and manner of operation, together with further objects and advantages thereof, may best be understood by reference to the following description taken in connection with the accompanying drawing in which:

Pigs. 1A and 1B represent the upper and lower sec- 2,94%,ii8 ?atented July 5, i960 tions, respectively, of well logging apparatus constructed in accordance with the present invention shown in operative associat-ion with a borehole, certain details of Fig. -lA being shown schematically;

Fig. 2 is an enlarged view in longitudinal cross-section of a portion of Fig. 1B outlined by rectangle Z;

Fig. 3 is a perspective view of a portion of the apparatus shown in Fig. 2;

Figs. 4 through l0 are graphs useful in explaining the various characteristics of the invention;

Figs. ll and l2 represent modifications which may be made to the arrangement of Fig. 2;

Figs. 13 and 14 are graphs Iwhich are helpful in explaining the operation of another embodiment of the invention; and

Fig. l5 is a graph illustrating a typical calibration curve for the apparatus of Figs. 1 and 2.

As shown in Fig. 1A of the drawings, the well logging apparatus embodying the present invention comprises a housing 10 suspended by an armored cable l1 in a borehole 12 traversing earth formations 13 and which may be filled with a drilling liquid 14, such as a water base or oil base mud. The cable lil may be employed in association with a winch (not shown) to lower and raise housing l@ in the borehole in a customary manner.

Housing l@ is of conventional pressure-resistant construction to protect lvarious electronic circuits., to be described hereinafter, from the drilling mud '14. The lower end of housing or electronic cartridge lil is connected to a tubular support l5, represented in Fig. 1B, having a compound curve configuration so that it extends downwardly and toward the sidewall of the borehole. Attached to support l5 is another generally-cylindrical instrument or wall-engaging skid lr6 connected by an integral extension 17 of tube l5 to a weighted member 18, Tube portion 17 is of a curved configuration similar to portion i5, but it extends downwardly and away from the sidewall of the borehole.

Cartridge l@ and weight 18 are connected together by a conventional bowed spring 19 provided with a sidewall-engaging shoe 20. The curvature and resilience of spring 18 are arranged in a known manner so that a Wall-engaging face 21 of instrument 16 is maintained in engagement with the sidewall of borehole 12 as the assem bly traverses the borehole.

With reference now to Fig. 2, instrument i6 is comprised of a thin-walled steel container or housing 22 having upper and lower openings 23 and '24 which conform to the diameters of tube portions l5 and 17. These tube portions are integrally connected by a tube 25 which extends longitudinally through pad 16 in essentially parallel relation to face 2l. Tube 25 is provided with a plurality of openings so that molten lead may be introduced and thus the lead, after it solidies, forms a gamma ray shield 27 which essentially fills the container 22 `as well as tube portion 25. Of course, other shield materials of high density and high atomic number may be employed. In addition, if desired, tube portion 25, as well as portions 15 and 17, may be construct-ed of a material substantially impervious to gamma radiation, as an alloy of tungsten, copper, and nickel, commonly referred to under the trade names Hevimet'or Mallory 1000.

A threaded opening 28 is provided in the vicinity of the lower end of sidewall-engaging face 21. This open ing receives the entirety of a pellet of radium or cobalt 60, or, as shown, of a screw 29 composed of cobalt 60 previously made radioactive by conventional techniques. As is well-known, radioactive cobalt is a prolific producer of gamm-a radiation and thus the apparatus embodying the invention includes a source Ifor irradiating earth formations i3 with gamma rays.

The apparatus further includes a `detection system for tive to a longitudinal line of tace 21 in a direction toward the axis of borehole 12, and a cut out 32 is provided in the front face of tube portion 25 to accommodate this tilt. Housing 30 may be considered as an extension of instrument 16, and to receive a portion of housing 30 which projects out of opening 23, tube 15 is aligned,l in part, with bore 31.

Supported within housing 30 by appropriate resilient means (not shown) is a conventional twin-walled Dewar flask 33. A scintillation element 34, such as a cylindrical crystal of sodium iodide,'is disposed at the lower end of Dewar tlask33 and by virtue of the tilt of. bore 31 is positioned relatively close to face 21. Also disposed within ask 33 is a conventional photomultiplier tube 3S Vhaving its end window 36 optically coupled to the crystal 34. The Dewar ask 3-3 thermally insulatcs both crystal 34 and photomultiplier 35 from drilling mud 11i-thereby minimizing any detrimental eiects which ployed for its characteristically high input impedance `and low output impedance coupled to a pulse Shaper 54. Pulse Shaper 54 may, for example, be a delay line, for deriving pulses of proportional height but of reduced duration compared to the pulses applied to it. 'Ihe shaper 54 is coupled to --an ampliiier 55, in turn, coupled to a pulse height discriminator 56 adjusted so that pulses `of relatively low amplitudes usually caused by extraneous ldark current ofthe photomultiplier 35 are not applied to the succeeding stage which in this case is a sealer 57. The Scaler is employed since counting rates of the order of -101v countsV per second are required in order to realize, in'practice, the `accuracy inherent in this device, andconventional cables d o not readily transmit pulses rat this "rate" atlow power. The sealer is coupled to a power amplilier 58 connected by insulated conductors 59 of cable 11'to a counting rate recorder 60 at the surface of the earth in which the recording medium is'disp'laced in proportion` to movement ofv inmay result from high temperatures sometimes encountered in a borehole. n

Electrical Vconnections to the photomultiplier may be completed by means of a socket 37 included in an end .closure 37'V for the Dewar ask. Circuit elements for use with the photomultiplier vare supported on a chassis 38 disposed above closure 37.

Electrical connectors 39 and 40 are 'associated with corresponding sockets 41 and 42 of a cap 43 which closes housing 30. Thus, electrical input and output conductors 44 yand 4S may be connected to the photomultiplier ci-rcuit, although housing 30, together with its cap 43, constitutes a pressure-resistant container.

To displace drilling mud 14 from in front of scintillation element 34, the upper front portion of container .22 and shield 27 are cut away to receive a member 46 that is essentially transparent to gamma rays. For example, mud displacer 46 may be constructed of aluminum and is so formed that 4it conforms to the cylindrical conguration of Vwall-engaging face 21. 'Ilhat is, below a horizontal plane, represented by dash line 47 and dened by the uppermost extremity of scintillation element 34, member 46 functions as -an essentially straight continuation of face 21 thereby to minimize the `amount of drilling mud that may come between the face and the sidewall of the borehole. However, in order to keep the wall-'engaging face 21 as short as possible to facilitate good wall contact, member 46 curves gradually above plane 47 :and provides a smooth transition at its junction withtube 15. The configuration of member 46 may be best appreciated vfrom an examination of the perspective representation Iin Fig. 3, which shows it to rhave a semicylindrical -inner face 48 which corresponds to the shape of housing Thelongitudinal distance between the geometric centers of source 29 and detector crystal 34, denoted in Fig. 2 by the characters S-D, is selected to provide a desired operating characteristic. The manner in which this S-D spacing is determined will be apparent from a dis- -cussion to be presented hereinafter. Y IReferring once again to the electronic cartridge l@ illustrated in Fig. l, power conductors 44 for the photomultiplier circuit are connected to a power lsupply 49 which is energized via insulated conductors 50 of cable .11 by a power lsource 51 at the surface of the earth pro- .vided with an operating switch 52.

The pulse signal from the photomultipler is supplied over conductors 45 v to a cathode follower 53, em-

stru-ment 16 in the borehole. Thus, a continuous log of counting rate versus depth may be obtained;

Circuit elements 4 9, 53, 54, 55, '56, 57, 58v and 6ft may be'of conventional construction and thus they need not b e described in detail.

In operation, the assembly including housing 10, in-

strument 16 and the associated elements is lowered intoV borehole 12 below the formations to be logged. Switch 52 is closed and the assembly is raised at anormal logging speed, Ywhile spring 19 maintains face 21 of instrument 16- inengagement with 'the' sidewall of the borehole. VGamma yradiation from source 29 irradiates the formations and- `after being laffected by formation material some off this gamma radiation is intercepted by scintillation crystal 34. As is-well-known, crystal'34 operates as a gamma ray transducer and in response'to each quantum of incident gam-.ma radiation, a pulse of light its derived having an energy content proportional to the gamma ray energy dissipated in the crystal. The rate of occurrence of such pulses is dependent on the tlux of gannna radiation. Each such light pulse is converted to an :amplified pulse of electrical energy, the amplitude of which is proportional to the energy of the light pulse, by the photomultiplier 35 and thusV a succession of pulses is supplied via cathode follower 53 to-pulse Shaper 54. The pulses,'after a reduction in duration in-shaper 54, are amplified in stage 55 and applied viadiscriminator 56 to Scaler 57. The counting rate Vof thel pulses supplied by thejscalervto'ampliiier '58, ofcourse, is proportional to the counting rate of parent from the following discussionythe intercepted 4.gamma'ray flux isa measure ofV formation density, and

therefore, a density log is obtained by means of the apparatus embodying the present invention. The principles of operation and the manner of selecting the best mode of carrying out the present invention may-'be best `appreciated in view of certain theoretical and experhnental considerations. These considerations, although useful in the practice of the linvention, sliou'l not be deemed as in any way limiting its scope. In general, gamma rays below an energy of Vapproximately 0.l million electron volts"(m.e.vi.) interact with matter in a process which eliminates the gamma rays, known as the photoelectric eifect. Another process which takes place is known as the Compton eiect whereby -the energy of each gammar'ay'is reduced and its direction is changed. The probability of a Compton 'interaction within a given 'volume of matter depends onthe energy of the gamma ray and on the number of electrons per cubic centimeter, usually `referred to as the Agamma rays may be used to determine the electron density of subsurface `formations and also to indicate the type and density of nuclei present, depending upon the gamma ray energy of the source used.

One method of measuring electron density of a formation is to use the formation as a gamma ray redector. For example, a source of gamma radiation and a very closely spaced gamma ray detector may be employed. Gamma radiation from the source is Comptonscattered and some of the scattered gamma rays are intercepted by the detector. It has been observed that in this arrangement, the intercepted gamma ray ux varies directly with electron density. However, experiment has `shown that the depth of investigation of the short or zero spacing source and detector is impractically small for borehole logging purposes.

On the other hand, by using apparatus constructed in accordance with the present invention, wherein a relatively large source-detector spacing is employed, electron density is measured through the use of the formation as both scatterer and absorber. As the electron density ofthe medium under investigation increases, the amount of gamma radiation that is absorbed increases. 'Ilhus the gamma ray ilux at the detector is, in general, inversely related to the electron density of the formations.

It is evident that both scattering and absorption, which increase together, are involved in large source-detector spacing apparatus. Because of this, electron density is a double-valued function of counting rate, in turn, representative of intercepted gamma ray flux. A very dense formation exhibits a large absorption and a very tenuous formation provides little scattering; both result in low counting rates. There is also a range of source-detector spacings such that for formation densities normallyl encountered in borehole logging, counting rates increase with density. ln addition, there are spacings larger than the last-mentioned spacings for which counting rates decrease with increasing density.

Before proceeding with a discussion of the selection of source-detector spacing, it may be helpful iirst'to examine the significance of electron density measurements which may be made with the apparatus illustrated in-Figs. l and 2.V

IIt has been found that the dominant eiect in obtaining a log with equipment of this type is that of Compton scattering, although the photoelectric effect at the K-s-hell energy and somewhat `above may cause a small perturbation. The Compton eiect. depends only upon the electron density in a formation. Hence, it is important to establish the relationship of electron density, pe, to the bulk `density p. In Fig. 4, the mass density versus electron density for various formation materials is illustrated. However, in order to interpret the logs obtained with the apparatus of Figs. 1-2, this must be examined in greater detail.

The number of atoms per unit volume, p, (or the number of moceules, if the quantity A is taken as the mocular rather than the atomic Weight), is:

' Now ifa rock matrix, rep-resented by r, is present 6 having a porosity, o, and lled with a. fluid, f, it may be shown from Equation 2 that From Equation 4 it may be seen that the electron density is depen-dent only onY the bulk density only if the quantity The quantities (A fan (A).

as used here, of course, represent the ratios of the Z and A for the molecules of the interstitial iluid and rock matrix, respectively, suitably averaged, if vnecessary. The `asstunption may be made that terizing parameters,

and p It is a fortuitous circumstance that the two most important constituents of rock matrices are SiOz and CaCOa, both of which have Large varia-tions in A t among rock matrices would make the log useless for density determination since the response would then depend on the chemical nature of the formation as well as upon its bulk density. However, Water (H2O) and hydrocarbon (CH2), the principal interstitial fluids,

have

values which are greater than 1/2 by about 10%, an amount which is appreciable in view of the accuracy with which the present type of log must. be made in order to be useful practically.

Thus, the effect of deviations of from 1/z by taking the ratio of Z Pe fto 94,66)

using Equation 4 will` be investigated. Measuring the rock matrix density in units of interstitial uid density, such that is constant.

to within about 0.2%.

this ratio becomes:

ya t, ,lian y In determining ...gyra

Z Y .(yaee as a function of porosity for H2O in SiOz and (CH2)Il in SiOZ, calculated from the-above Equation 6. It will be observed that if pe were truly independent of e g lps would be a horizontaltstraight line having the value unity. Since the presence offH perturbs the situation, the. non-linearity of with p increases with increasing porosity. However, it may be seen from Fig. that the maximum value of this non-linearity is only 27.6% at a porosity of 45% for H2O in SiO2. This isthe highest porosity usually encountered in Ilogging with apparatus embodying the present invention.

' lf the uidand the matrix Vwere perfectly arbitrary, this deviation from linearity could be significant since it has been found desirable to measure p itself to within 2.5%. The non-linearity' would then require a knowledge of the-specific nature of the Huid before the density could be determined. However, since the fluid is usuallyf the ratio known to fall in a limited class (either (CH2)n or H2O),

there need be no concernwith the proportionality of pe with p so much as with the differences in degree of non-linearity as the fluid changes. Thus, in Fig. 5, there is shown anothercurve for (CHQnnas the interstitial uid and also the difference curve between H2O and (CH2)n. It may.k be seen that although pe is not rigorously proportional to p, it does stand in one-to-one correspondence yindependent 'of whether the fluid is (CH2)n or H2O, to Withinlbetter than 0.8%, at least if the corrections for temperature, salinity, etc., mentioned above are ignored. The practical significance of this is that if the apparatus of Figs. 1 3 is calibrated in SiOg-i-HZO, this calibration may be employed for SiOz-.l-(CHZ)n as well. Y

Thehext problem to` be considered is thecorrelation of a `density measurement with porosity of an earth formation, assuming a given interstitial uid. It Vshould be noted that this assumption Aneed not be made since, as pointed out hereinbefordeven if the fluid changes from H2O to (CH2), pe does not change appreciably, Inasmuch as CaCO3 and SiOZ have practically identicall values, the Vonly quantity on the right hand side of above Equation 4 which differs for those two matrices is pr. Rather than actually calculating pe for those .twolmatrices, the difference, or ,the fractional change in pe fory a given fractional change inpr, will `provide significant. information. Dilferentiating Equation 4witli respect to grlandwdividing'by p'r leads to p f The factor in the brackets of Equation 7 mayv berec'ognized as the fractional. change in electron `den'sityperV unit fractional change in bulk density of the rock matrix as ay function of porosity. The quantity may be taken as thefractional difference in density be# tween a limestone matrix and a sandstone matrix, which Y sponse as a 3.4% porosity limestone,V a 20% porous Y is0.0?.2.v` Y In Fig. 6, there is shown a curve representing Vthe fractionalchange Vin electron density as a function of porosity. It is evideutthat over the illustrated porosity 'range of interest, there is every little variation in the dinerence between peioz) and peacoa) and the meanY difference itself is only 2.0%.Y Thus, in practice, the apparatus of Figs. 1-2 maybe calibrated, for example in SiO2-l-H2O- to determine the i porosity response and this calibration may then corrected very simply for use in limestone formations. The correction may be carried out in the following fashion. Equation 4 is differentiated with respect togb and by transposing and dividing by pe the following relation is obtained which expresses the shift in porosity with `a givenfrac@` tional shift in pe. The fractional shift in'pe may be taken as therfractional ldifference brought about by re-- placing SiOZ with CaCO3, using the result of Equationv 7. Stated 'another way, whereas Equation 7 givesV the change in lelectron density due to a change in bulk density of the rock matrix, it is desirable to convert this `into the corresponding lapparent change in porosity. Substitution of the appropriate numbers in Equation 8j yields t It was shown earlier that for the case of a change of matrix from SiOZ to CaCO3. Hence, -a zero porosity sandstone will give the same resand will appear as a 23% porous limestone, and a 40% porous sand will look like a 42.6% porous limestone. An average correction of 0.03 porosity units may then be employed in such a fashion that if the formations were known to be a limestone and the apparatus has been calibrated in sandstones, the porosity may be read from the calibration curve and then 0.03 porosity units added. The correction is small for the small differences in `pI found in earth formations and well defined. Consequently, a fairly unique value of porosity may be determined.

The significance of this analysis lies in the fact that, if Compton effect is lthe dominant form of interaction with the formation, the electron density is the only quantity of significance. The energy of the source included in the apparatus of Figs. l and 2 may be selected so that this condition is satisfied. Accordingly, apparatus embodying the present invention may be employed to obtain a log which is accurately representative of formation density as a function of depth in the borehole.

In yexperiments intended to determine the best spacing between the source and detector, as Well as other characteristics of the apparatus described herein, a scintillation element 11/2 in `diameter and 2" long was employed and the output of photomultiplier 35 was coupled to a conventional single channel puls-e height analyzer. Fig. 7 illustrates a typical pulse amplitude spectrum, which as is well-known is representative of the energy of intercepted gamma radiation. There is shown an increase in photon iiux due to Compton scattering build-up effect as energy decreases until, in the vicinity of 100 k.e.v., photoelectric absorption begins to appear, causing a maximum in Ithe spectrum, followed by .a sharp decrease as the curve precedes to still lower energies.

` `In the experiments to be described, laboratory type formations were employed including limestone with a six inch borehole, and sand plus water with a range of -borehole sizes. The densities of these formations are illustrated in Fig. 4 where a realistic range of densities (2.0-2.7 gms/cc.) is included. Borehole uids employed afforded a realistic density range from 1.0 to 2.0 gms/cc. With this experimental set-up various S-D spacings were uti-lized yielding ratios of counting rates observed in the two formations ranging from 1.7 to 2.4 as the S-D spacing was increased from 24 cms. to 40 cms.

vIt will be observed from Fig. 8, which summarizes the data, that resolution, or the degree to which variations in density may be indicated varies directly with spacing, but the counting rate decreases quite markedly with spacing.

Additional differential pulse height distributions obtained by using a cobalt 60 source recessed 2/3" behind face 21 (Fig. 2) and recording the gamma radiation above 70 k.e.v. are included in Fig. 9 wherein the various curves, illustrative of certain formations and S-D spacings, yare plotted in terms of counting rate versus pulse height. An approximate energy scale is shown in Figs. 8 and 9 for purposes of orientation.

Of course, counting rate may be raised by increasing the strength of the source. However, consideration of cost and health hazard make the use of a low source strength very desirable. In addition, the sidewall-engaging face of instrument 16 (Fig. 2) may not be of excessive length since its association with the sidewall of the borehole may be adversely affected thereby leading to undesirable perturbations in the log caused by varying amounts of drilling mud in front of face 21. With these considerations in view, an S-D spacing of l inches for an approximately fifty millicurie cobalt 60 source may be preferable.

It was noted that by setting the equipment to accept gamma rays above 45 k.e.v. the counting rate was increased 50% without changing the resolution appreciably. If a level of 200 k.e.v. is employed, counting rate is reduced by approximately a factor of two. These results may be anticipated from the data of Fig. 9.

An approximation of the radius of investigation at an S-D spacing of 32 cm. was made by successively increasing the radius of a low density laboratory formation outside a borehole. The results of this experiment are ineluded in Table I.

It is evident from the data of Table I that more than onehalf the total counting rate is contributed by material more than 21/2I from the sidewall of the borehole. This fact is significant since it has been shown experimentally that sidewall devices of this type suggested heretofore have radii of investigation very much less than this, a fact which makes them nearly useless for formation density logging.

Another more refined experiment was performed using varying thicknesses of limestone and a 38.5 cm. S-D spacing. The results are plotted along a curve in Fig. 10 which indicates a depth of investigation between two and six inches.

Turning now to the problem of maintaining a desired high accuracy in the density measurements obtained with the apparatus of Figs. 1 and 2, various factors beyond the and p,

effects described above which are of importance in this connection will now be examined. These factors are borehole size effect, the effect of mud density and the effect of mud cake.

To indicate the means by which the first of these deleterious factors, namely borehole size effect, is practically eliminated, experiments were performed in a formation whose density differs most from that of the drilling mud, since the largest fractional effect on counting rate due to borehole size should occur under these conditions. Hence, the gamma ray response `in a laboratory limestone formation, using water as mud, was measured as a function of borehole size. The results of this experiment indicated only about a 4% increase in counting rate as borehole diameter increased from 6 to 10, thus showing the present invention to be relatively insensitive to borehole size, in contrast to conventional equipment which is not maintained against the sidewall of the borehole or shielded in the unique fashion of Fig. 2. Further improvement in this factor may be achieved by suitably enlarging the sides or cheeks of sidewall-engaging face 21 (Fig. 2) in a lateral direction so that a better conformance with the sidewall of an average 8" borehole may be obtained.

The mud density effect is especially detrimental to the accuracy of measurements made with conventional, nonsidewall equipment or with sidewall equipment not shielded as in Fig. 2.

In the experiments for evaluating mud density effects, two laboratory muds were used, one consisting of water and the other a mixture of sand and water, simulating an eight pound mud and a sixteen pound mud, respectively. These muds are representative of a range of mud weights utilized in drilling operations. Measurements were carried out in a laboratory limestone formation since the effect is expected to be largest in the most dense formations. Further, a laboratory device with individual, longitudinally spaced source and detector shields was used.

As the mud was changed from 8 lbs. to 16 lbs. in a l0 laboratory borehole using an S-D spacing of 38.5 cm. (15"), a counting rate decrease of 11% was found.

A 2 thick lead slab having the diameter of the l0 borehole, but of half-moon configuration was next interposed between the source and the detector with the curved edge against the borehole wall. It was found that 1 1 this reduced the mud density effect to only 3%. It was further noted that the absolute counting rates decreased by 9%,fth`us indicating that at least 9% ofthe detected gamma rays spend part of their total path between the source yand detector in the borehole fluid at this large spacing, if no intervening shield is used.

For this reason, the Aspace between thesourcelandthe detector in the construction illustrated in Fig. 2 isrfilled with lead; actually all the lead shown is not'needed. for shielding, but rather for mud displacement. A reduction in the weight of instrument 16 may be achieved by removing some of the lead between the source and detector, leaving enough to provide adequate gamma ray shielding. To strengthen the assembly, the resulting space may be filled with any other suitable material of light weight, such as aluminum.

In addition, mud density effects may be further reduced by enlarging the cheeks of face 21 in the manner suggested hereinbefore in connection with borehole size effects.

AIt is found that the most serious effect which must be considered is the one produced by mud cake on the sidewall of the borehole. Since, as in the case of the boreL hole size effect, it is expected that the largest effect occurs for the largest contrast between formation density and mud cake density, experiments were performed in a limestone formation using laboratory mud cakes 3/6 thick (1.2 grams/cm?) and 144" thick (2.1 grams/cm3).

The longitudinally separated source and detector shield housings were employed and with the source located at the window of its cavity, the 1.2 grams/cm.3 fmud'ca'ke gave a 15% increase, in counting rate for a 32 cm. S--D spacing, as compared with no mud cake.` Recessing the source by 1/2 reduced the effect to 11% thus indicating that mud ca-ke affects the counting rate at least partly by presenting a shunt transmission path for gamma rays emitted from the source toward the detector at relatively small angles relative to the axis of the borehole.

An investigation of the relationship of the mud cake effect with respect to the energy spectrum was conducted lfor a 32 cm. S-i-D spacing, and a 1A" thick 2.1 grams/ cm.3 mud cake. At a bias in discriminator 56 (Fig. 1A) such that gamma ray energies above 45 l .e.v. were detected, the mud cake effect was found to be 12%. With a bias set to detect gamma rays above 450 k.e.v., the mud cake effect dropped to 8%. Thus, the mud cake effect .can be reduced by utilizing those gamma rays which have lthe smallest probability of interaction with the mud cake, either by virtue of their low attenuation coefficient in the mud cake (higher energy gamma rays) Vor by virtue of the fact that only a small part of their total path from source to detector is spent in the mud cake. A phenomenological analysis of this effect assumes an exponential attenuation of gamma rays along Vsome curved path between the source and the detector. The counting rate for fixed source strength is proportional to the transmission, T, and this may be expressed as follows:

` dT: Le-Idx (l1) or, from Equation 10,

dT= ,/.Tdx (12) The fractional/ change in transmission for a fractional change in path length l Y. dx`

In logging with a source of gamma rays and a detector of gamma rays, very small transmissions occur. n These may be of the order of lG-3 to 104 for which ln T is a number of relatively large magnitude. Thus, even if the fractional change in path length through the formation, is small, it is multiplied by a large number, ln T. Hence the fractional change in T, and thus in the counting rate, may be appreciable. j

Of course, this should be considered as a rough model because T is not strictly exponential, build-up has not been included, and the effective attenuation coefficient of a mud cake is not equal to zero. However, recognition of the nature of the effect allows the novel device described below to `reduce the mud cake effect in practical cases. Y

In order to reduce the effects of mud cake, the apparatus of Fig. 2 may be modified inthe manner shown in Fig. 11. A modified instrument 16' is illustrated wherein container 22 has a continuous portion 70.cov ering sidewall-engaging face 21. An enlarged Ysource opening 71 receives a pellet 72 of Hgz"3 or other low energyV gamma ray source and a plurality of shield louvers 73, disposed in parallel, horizontally-oriented planes, are positioned between container portion 70 and source 72. A low energy source is preferred in this embodiment in order to achieve a desired collimation with relatively thin louvers.

A similar group of louvers 74 are positioned between container portion 70 and the scintillation elements 34', shown in dash outline, and a modified -aluminum member 77 extends above louvers 74.

The shield louvers 73 and 74 may be constructed of lead and the gamma ray transparent spaces between them filled with a material of low gamma ray absorption coefficient such as hydrogenous plastic or beryllium, designated by the numerals 75 and 76. s

With the modified arrangement, all gamma rays from source 72 enter the earth formations in a direction transverse to the mud cake and gamma rays are intercepted by the detector 34 if they are essentially transverse to the mud cake. Accordingly, the mean thickness of mud cake traversed by gamma rays is kept at a minimum and mud cake effect is reduced.

Another arrangement for reducing mud cake effect is shown in Fig. 12 whereby the gamma ray source is broughtl in close association with the formations. To this end, a source 80 is positioned in a cavity 81 at the front end of a knife member 82. Member 82 may be constructed of Hevimet and source 80 may be radio- -active mercury of atomic weight 203 which emits gamma rays of relatively low energy. Hence, knife 82 may be relatively small and yet effectively block all gamma radiation except that emitted in a forward direction through a relatively thin, tungsten carbide cutting edge 83.

Knife 82 is pivotally supported at its other end by a pin 84 extending transversely through a longitudinal slot 85 in the front portion of the modified instrument 16. The slot is large enough so that knife 82 may retract to a hidden position, illustrated in dash outline 82', and a spring 86 biases the knife about its pivot 84. Thus, the knife is urged into engagement with mud cake 87, and as the instrument is drawn upwardly through the borehole, cutting edge 83 permits the knife to penetrate the mud cake. Accordingly, source 80 is brought into close association with formation material 88 and the mud cake effect may be reduced by approximatelyY one half.l

g-Lilli? lf desired, knife 82 may be connected to a suitable mechanical linkage associated with detector housing 33.

In this way the housing 33 may be displaced by an appropriate amount with pivotal movement of the knife so as to maintain a given S-D spacing.

It has been found that by using Hg603 as a gamma ray source, increased density resolution may be obtained for a given longitudinal length of the sidewall-engaging instrument. If desired, a given resolution, achieved with a Ra or C060 source may be maintained while the length of the instrument is reduced. Accordingly, a -better association between the instrument and the sidewall of the borehole leads to greater precision in density measurements obtained with the apparatus embodying the present invention.

To help in understanding the operation of this embodiment of the invention, experiments were conducted using a C060 source and a Ilg203 source and a spectrumanalyzing gamma ray detector.

As a result of irradiation with gamma radiation at energies of 1.17 and 1.33 rn.e.v. from C060 having an average of 1.25 m.e.v., the detection equipment derives the curves for Vhigh and low densities illustrated in Fig. 13. An assumed bias level is illustrated by a vertical line denoted bias, introduced to show how discriminator 56 of Fig. 1A might be adjusted to eliminate extraneous noise pulses. The ratio of the cross-hatched area enclosed by the low and high density curves and the -bias line to the area under one of these curves defines the resolution of the apparatus.

In Fig. 14, the same type of illustration for the Hg203 source (emitting gamma radiation at 0.28 m.e.v.) is employed, and again the density resolution is defined in the same way as above. A visual comparison of Figs. 13 and 14 readily illustrates that the embodiment utilizing the lower energy source provides increased resolution.

Fig. 15 represents a typical calibration curve for the apparatus illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2 plotted in terms of density in grams per cm.3 versus counts per second per millicurie (source). From this curve, it may be seen that the apparatus desirably provide high resolution; there is a large change in'counting rate for a relatively small density variation. Accordingly, small uncertainties in counting rate due to either statistical fluctuations or systematic causes, such as mud cake, mud density, etc., do not appreciably reduce the accuracy of the density measurements. It is, therefore, apparent that gamma ray logging apparatus constructed in accordance with the present invention affords greater accuracy than heretofore attainable.

Although specific gamma ray sources have been enumerated, such as C060, Hg203, and radium, obviously any other source may be utilized whether of the naturally radioactive type or wherein gamma radiation is generated through the acceleration of particles prior to impingement on a suitable target material. Moreover, other detectors may be employed. For example, an ionization chamber may be suitably arranged for use in the apparatus embodying the invention.

While particular embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described, it is apparent that changes and modifications may be made without departing from this invention in its broader aspects, and therefore the aim in the appended claims is to cover all such changes and modiiications as fall within the true spirit and scope of this invention.

We claim:

1. Apparatus for investigating earth formations traversed by a Well or borehole comprising: an instrument adapted to be passed through the borehole including a Wall-engaging face and an extension tilted relative to a longitudinal line of said Wall-engaging face in a direction toward the axis of the borehole; means for maintaining said Wall-engaging face in engagement with the sidewall of the borehole; a source of gamma radiation supid ported within said instrument in the vicinity of said wallengaging face; and a detection system including a'gammaray-responsive device supported within said instrument in the vicinity of said wall-engaging face and in longitudinally spaced relation from said source relative to the axis of the borehole, and an element coupled to said gamma-rayresponsive device and supported within said extension of said instrument.

2. Apparatus for investigating earth formations traversed by a well or borehole comprising.: an instrument adapted to be passed through the borehole including a wall-engaging face and an extension tilted relative to a longitudinal line of said wall-engaging face in a direction toward the axis of the borehole, whereby the longitudinal dimension of the portion of said instrument including said face is minimized; means for maintaining said wall-engaging face in engagement with the sidewall of the borehole and in essentially parallel relation to the axis of the borehole; a source of gamma radiation supported within said instrument in the vicinity of said wallengaging face; and a detection system including a gammaray-responsive device supported within said instrument in relatively close association with said wall-engaging face and in longitudinally spaced relation from said source relative to the axis of the borehole, and an element coupled to said gamma-ray responsive device and supported within said extension of said instrument.

3. Apparatus for investigating earth formations traversed by a well or borehole comprising: an instrument adapted to be passed through the borehole including a Wall-engaging face and an extension tilted relative to a longitudinal line of said Wall-engaging face in a direction toward the axis of the borehole; means for maintaining said wall-engaging face in engagement with the sidewall of the borehole; a source of gamma radiation supported within said instrument in the vicinity of said wall-engaging face; a detection system including a gammaray-responsive device supported Within said instrument in the vicinity of said wall-engaging face and in longitudinally spaced relation from said source relative to the axis of the borehole, and an element for deriving a signal representing a characteristic of gamma radiation incident on said gamma-ray-responsive device and supported within said extension of said instrument; and means for producing indications of said signal as a function of depth in the borehole.

4. Apparatus for investigating earth formations traversed by a well or borehole comprising: an instrument adapted to be passed through the borehole Aincluding a wall-engaging face and an extension tilted relative to a longitudinal line of said wall-engaging face in a direction toward the axis of the borehole, and said instrument having a bore substantially aligned with said extension; means for maintaining said Wall-engaging face in engagement with the sidewall of the borehole; a source of gamma radiation supported Within said instrument in the vicinity of said wall-engaging face; and a detection system including a gamma-ray-responsive scintillation device supported Within said bore of said instrument in the vicinity of said wall-engaging face and in longitudinally spaced relation from said source relative to the axis of the borehole, and a photo-electric element optically coupled to said gamma-ray-responsive device and supported in part, within said bore of said instrument and extending into said extension of said instrument.

5. Apparatus for investigating earth formations traversed by a well or borehole comprising: an instrument adapted to be passed through the borehole including a wall-engaging face and an extension tilted relative to a longitudinal line of said wall-engaging face in a direction toward the axis of the borehole; means for maintaining said Wall-engaging face in engagement With the sidewall of the borehole; a source of gamma radiation supported within said instrument in the vicinity of said wall-engaging face; a detection system including a gamma-ray-responsive device supported within said instrument in the vicinity of said wall-engaging face and in longitudinally spaced relation from said source relative to the axis of the borehole, and an element coupled to said gamma-ray-responsive device and supported within said extension of said instrument; and a gamma ray shield material substantially lling said instrument.

6. Apparatusfor investigating earth formations traversed by a well or borehole comprising: an instrument adapted to be passed through the borehole including a wall-engaging face and an extension tilted relative to a longitudinal line of said wall-engaging face in a direction toward the axis of the borehole; means for maintaining said wall-engaging face in engagement with the sidewall of the borehole; a source of gamma radiation supported within said instrument in the vicinity of said wall-engaging face; a detection system including a gamma-ray-responsive device supported within said instrument in the vicinity of said Wall-engaging face and in longitudinally spaced relation from said source relative to the axis of the borehole, and an element coupled to said gammaray-responsive device and supported within said extension of said instrument; and a gamma-ray-collimating system supported'between said wall-engaging face and each of said source and said gamma-ray-responsive device.

7. Apparatus for investigating earth formations traversed by a well or borehole comprising: an instrument adapted to be passed through the borehole including a Wall-engaging face and an extension tilted relative to a longitudinal line of said wall-engaging face in a direction toward the axis of the borehole; means for maintaining said wall-engaging face in engagement with the sidewall of the borehole; a' source of gamma radiation supported within said instrument in a vicinity of said wall-engaging face; a detection system including a gamma-ray-responsive device supported said instrument in the vicinity of said Wall-engaging face and in longitudinally spaced relation from said source relative to fthe axis of the-borehole, and an element coupled to said gammaray-responsive device and supported within said extension of said instrument; and a gamma-ray-collimating system including a plurality of members of a gamma-rayshielding material defining substantially parallel, longitudinally spaced planes disposed transversely to the axis of the borehole and occurring in two groups, one of said groups being supported between said wall-engaging face and 'said source andthe other of said groups being disposed between said wall-engaging face and said gammaray-responsive device. Y

8. Apparatus for-investigating earth formations traversed by a. well or borehole comprising: an instrument adapted to be passed through the borehole and including a wall-engaging `face; means for maintaining said wallengaging face in engagement with the sidewall of the borehole; a source of gamma radiation supported within said instrument in the vicinity of said Wall-engaging face; anda detection system including a gamma-ray-responsive device supported within said' instrument in the vicinity of said wall-engaging face and in longitudinally spaced relation from said source relative to the taxis of the borehole; and a gamma-ray-collimating system including a plurality of members of a gamma-ray-shielding material dening substantially parallel, longitudinally spaced planes disposed transversely to the axis of the borehole and occurringin two groups, `one of said groups being supported between said wall-engaging vface andl said source Iand the other of said groups being disposed between said wall-engaging face and said gamma-ray-responsive device. p

9. Apparatus for investigating earth formations traversed by a well or borehole comprising: an instrument adapted to be passed throughthe borehole including a wall-engaging face, an extension tilted relative to a longitudinal linefof said wall-engaging face .in a direction relative to said instrument toward the sidewall of the borehole; means for maintaining said Wall-engaging face in engagement with the sidewall of the borehole; a source of gamma radiation supported within said carrier; and a detection system including a gamma-ray-responsive deytice` supported within said instrument in the vicinity of said wall-engaging tace and in longitudinally spaced re-j lation from s'aid source relative, to the axis of the bore--l hole, and an'element coupled to said gamma-ray-responsive device and supported within said extension of said instrument.

10. Apparatus for investigating earth formations traversed by a well or borehole having a mudcake on the sidewall thereof, comprising: an instrument adapted to be passed .throughthe borehole including a wall-engaging lface, an extension tiltedrelative to a longitudinal line of. said wall-engaging face'in a direction toward the of the borehole, and a carrier movable relative to saidv instrument and biased toward the sidewall of the borehole, said carrier including an end portion constructed ,of a gamma-ray-shelding material having a chamber, and having a knife-like edge for cutting through mudcake;` means for maintaining said wall-engaging face in engagement with the sidewall of the borehole; a source of gamma radiation disposed within said chamber of. said carrier; and la detection system including a gamma-ray-I4 responsive device supported within said instrument in the vicinity of said wall-engaging face and in longitudinallyA spaced relation from said source relative to the axis of the borehole, and an element coupled to Asaid gamma-rayresponsive device and supported within said extension of said instrument. Y.

1l. Apparatus for investigating earth formations traversed by a well or borehole having a mudcalie on the sidewall thereof comprising: an instrument adaptul to be passed through the borehole including a. wall-engaging face, and a carrier movable relative to said instrument and biased toward the sidewall of the borehole, said carrier including an end portion constructed of a gammaray-shielding material having a chamber, and having a knife-like edge for cutting through mudcake; means for maintaining said wall-engaging face in engagement with the sidewall of the borehole; a source 'of gamma radiation disposed within said chamber of said carrier; and a detection system including a gamma-ray-,res'ponsive device supponted within said instrument in the vicinity of said wall-engaging face and in longitudinally spaced relation from saidl source relative 'to the axis ofthe borehole.

12. Apparatus for investigating earth formations traversed by a well or borehole comprising: an instrument adapted to be passed through the borehole including a' wall-engaging face and an extension tilted relative to a longitudinal line of said wall-engaging face in a dire@- tion toward the axis of the borehole; means for maintaining said wall-engaging face in engagement with the sidewall of the borehole; a source of gamma radiation, having an energy such ythat a high density resolution resulting from lo'w transmission occurs, supported within said` instrument in the vicinity of said wall-engaging face; and a detection system including a gamma-ray-responsive device supported within said instrument in the vicinity of said wall-engaging face and in longitudinally spaced relation from said source relative to the axis of the borehole and an element coupled to said gammagray-responsive device and supported within said extension ofsaid instrument. i

References Cited in the file of this patent UNITED sTATns PATENTS 

